• Incompleteness: The statement is usually only the bare outline of the message. The missing parts must be filled in.

  
  I was late for work today.
  My car wouldn't start.
  The battery was dead.
  

• Anaphora:[The singular is anaphor.] Words that refer to others.

  
  John loaned bill his bike.
  

• Metonymy: Using a word associated with the intended concept.

  
  The White House denied the report.
  

• Semantics: Understanding what was meant from what was said.
  • Only differences from assumed knowledge are stated explicitly.

  • Reasoning from general knowledge about the world is required for correct understanding.

  • A vast amount of world knowledge is needed.

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